How has Optional been improved and how should it be used correctly?

Optional<T> (Java 8) is a container for a value that may or may not be present. It is designed to be a return type that makes the absence of a value explicit in the API contract, not a replacement for null in all contexts.

// Correct use — as a return type
Optional findById(long id) {
    return Optional.ofNullable(repository.get(id));
}

// Chaining without get()
findById(42)
    .filter(u -> u.isActive())
    .map(User::email)
    .ifPresent(email -> sendNotification(email));

// or() — Java 9: fallback to another Optional
Optional user = findById(42)
    .or(() -> findByEmail("alice@example.com"));

// ifPresentOrElse — Java 9
findById(42).ifPresentOrElse(
    user -> System.out.println("Found: " + user),
    ()   -> System.out.println("Not found")
);

// stream() — Java 9: use Optional in flatMap on a stream of Optionals
List> opts = List.of(Optional.of("a"), Optional.empty(), Optional.of("b"));
List present = opts.stream()
    .flatMap(Optional::stream)  // ["a", "b"]
    .toList();

// ANTI-PATTERNS:
// opt.isPresent() ? opt.get() : default -- use orElse(default)
// Optional> -- use flatMap
// Optional as a field -- use null or an explicit state enum
// Optional as a parameter -- use method overloading

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