How do you reduce a Pandas DataFrame's memory usage through dtype optimisation?

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

df = pd.read_csv('large.csv')
print(f'Memory before: {df.memory_usage(deep=True).sum() / 1e6:.1f} MB')

# --- Integer downcasting ---
for col in df.select_dtypes('int64').columns:
    df[col] = pd.to_numeric(df[col], downcast='integer')
    # downcast tries int8 -> int16 -> int32 depending on value range

# --- Float downcasting ---
for col in df.select_dtypes('float64').columns:
    df[col] = pd.to_numeric(df[col], downcast='float')  # float32

# --- Categorical: object columns with low cardinality ---
# If a column has < 5% unique values, Categorical saves memory
for col in df.select_dtypes('object').columns:
    n_unique = df[col].nunique()
    if n_unique / len(df) < 0.05:    # less than 5% cardinality
        df[col] = df[col].astype('category')

print(f'Memory after : {df.memory_usage(deep=True).sum() / 1e6:.1f} MB')

# Categorical also speeds up groupby on low-cardinality columns
# because grouping enumerates integers rather than comparing strings